Piri Reis
Piri Reis | |
---|---|
![]() Statue of Piri Reis | |
Born | Muhiddin Piri c. 1470 |
Died | 1553 Cairo, Egypt Eyalet, Ottoman Empire |
Known for | Drawing the Piri Reis map |
Relatives | Kemal Reis (uncle) |
![Bust of Piri Reis in Gallipoli](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Piri_Reis-Gelibolu001.jpg/220px-Piri_Reis-Gelibolu001.jpg)
Ahmed Muhiddin Piri (c. 1465[1] – 1553[2]), better known as Piri Reis (Turkish: Pîrî Reis or Hacı Ahmet Muhittin Pîrî Bey), was an Ottoman navigator, geographer and cartographer. He is primarily known today for his maps and charts collected in his Kitab-ı Bahriye (Book of Navigation), a book that contains detailed information on early navigational techniques as well as relatively accurate charts for their time, describing the important ports and cities of the Mediterranean Sea.
He gained fame as a cartographer when a small part of his first world map, prepared in 1513, was discovered in 1929 at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. His world map is the oldest known Turkish atlas showing the New World, and one of the oldest maps of America still existing anywhere (the oldest known surviving map of America is the map drawn by Juan de la Cosa in 1500). Piri Reis's map is centered on the Sahara at the latitude of the Tropic of Cancer.[3]
In 1528, Piri Reis drew a second world map, of which a small fragment (showing Greenland and North America from Labrador and Newfoundland in the north to Florida, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and parts of Central America in the south) still survives. According to his imprinting text, he had drawn his maps using about 20 foreign charts and mappae mundi (Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Indian and Greek) including one by Christopher Columbus.[4] He was executed in 1553 in Cairo, having been found guilty of lifting the siege of Hormuz Island and abandoning the fleet, even though his reason for doing so was the lack of maintenance of his ships.[5]
Biography
[edit]Early life and piracy
[edit]Little is known about Piri Reis' background and early life.[6] He was likely born around 1470 in Gallipoli on the Dardanelles.[7] At the time, Gallipoli was a major naval base for the Ottoman Empire.[8] He was born Muhiddin Piri; Reis was a military rank equivalent to captain.[9] His uncle was Kemal Reis.[10] Little is known about his parents.[11] Piri Reis gives his father's name as Hacı Mehmed.[12] It is not clear from historical records whether Piri was the son of Kemal Reis' brother or sister.[13] Kemal Reis had a brother-in-law from Nafpaktos who was arrested and tortured in Venice for alleged spying during the Ottoman–Venetian wars. He was possibly Piri Reis' father.[14]
By age 12, he began sailing with his uncle Kemal Reis.[15] Kemal was a notable corsair,[16] a type of pirate who acted with the approval of a sovereign state.[17] Led by Kemal Reis, the Barbary pirates threatened European maritime traffic.[18] Piri Reis wrote of his early years, "We sailed on the Mediterranean and fought the enemies of our religion mercilessly."[19] He sailed with his uncle on raids, mainly on the coasts of Italy and Spain.[7] As a corsair, Piri Reis captured many ships, a fortress near Mallorca, and Pianosa near Corsica.[7] During the Granada War, Piri Reis transported Muslims and Jews from Spain to North Africa.[20] During the winters, he and his uncle took shelter in favorable harbors on the Barbary Coast.[21]
Naval career and cartography
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Venice_by_Piri_Reis.jpg/220px-Venice_by_Piri_Reis.jpg)
Piri Reis sailed under his uncle and later Hayreddin Barbarossa in the Ottoman Navy.[22] To bolster the empire's navy, Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II recruited Barbary and Aegean corsairs, including Piri and Kemal.[23] Before Barbarossa reorganized the navy, sultans commonly employed former pirates.[24] The addition of experienced corsairs raised the Ottoman Navy's competence in open-sea combat and knowledge of the Mediterranean.[25]
In 1495, Kemal Reis was imprisoned on Euboea for piracy and brought to the capital Constantinople. Rather than being sentenced, he was given a position in the navy. Piri Reis was with his uncle through this and later documented it in the Kitab-ı Bahriye.[26] In the empire's navy, Kemal and Piri advocated taking the coastal fortresses of the Peloponnese and the small but strategically valuable island of Rhodes.[27] In his Kitab-ı Bahriye, Piri Reis reports that his uncle had told Sultan Bayezid II, "Venice has two eyes: Her left eye is the [harbor] fortress of Modon. Her right eye is that of Corfu."[28]
Piri Reis took part in the Ottoman–Venetian wars, including First Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Zonchio) and Second Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Modon).[7] In the early 1500s, Kemal Reis led raids on the Balearic Islands, as well as Corsica in the western Mediterranean.[29] The Ottoman navy defeated the Venetian fleet at Morea and began to take control of the Eastern Mediterranean.[30] In one naval battle, Piri Reis and his uncle captured a Spaniard who had participated in Columbus's voyages,[31] and likely possessed an early map of the Americas that Piri Reis would use as a source for his maps.[32]
When his uncle died in a 1511 shipwreck in the Mediterranean, Piri Reis returned to Gallipoli to work on his navigational studies.[33] The finished manuscript of his first world map was dated to the month of Muharram in the Islamic year 919 AH, equivalent to 1513 AD.[34] This work included the recently explored shores of Africa and the Americas.[35] Although he had never sailed the Atlantic, he compiled over twenty maps of Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Indian and older Greek origins into a comprehensive representation of the known world of his era.[36]
By 1516, Piri Reis returned to the navy as captain of a galley in the Ottoman fleet and took part in the 1516–17 Ottoman conquest of Egypt.[7][37] He was the commander of the Turkish fleet that blockaded Alexandria.[38] After the Ottoman victory,[39] Piri Reis presented the 1513 world map to Sultan Selim I (r. 1512–1520).[40] It is unknown how Selim used the map, if at all, as it vanished from history until its rediscovery centuries later.[41] According to Venetian documents, Piri Reis was no longer with the Ottoman navy in 1518 and was engaging in piracy in the Aegean Sea.[42]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Piri_Reis_-_Map_of_the_Islands_of_the_Aegean_Sea_Including_Chios%2C_Cos%2C_Rhodes_and_Crete_-_Walters_W658101A_-_Full_Page.jpg/220px-Piri_Reis_-_Map_of_the_Islands_of_the_Aegean_Sea_Including_Chios%2C_Cos%2C_Rhodes_and_Crete_-_Walters_W658101A_-_Full_Page.jpg)
Piri Reis participated in the 1522 Siege of Rhodes.[43] The first version his Kitab-ı Bahriye—a nautical atlas gifted and dedicated to Suleiman the Magnificent—included advice on conquering Rhodes.[44][45] The island of Rhodes had a secure harbor and was 20 km from Anatolia. Controlled by an adversary, it could threaten maritime communication between the empire's capital and Mediterranean ports.[46] The Knights of St. John controlled the island, took Muslim captives, and provided shelter to Christian pirates.[47] During the siege, the Knights' fleet of ten ships remained in the harbor rather than confront the larger Ottoman force.[48] The Ottoman Navy conducted an amphibious operation, transporting many troops to the small island,[49] and the island surrendered on 25 December 1522. The Knights of St. John later relocated to Malta.[50][51]
The longer second version of the Kitab-ı Bahriye resulted from a conversation with the empire's grand vizier.[52] Suleiman's reign was the beginning of a shift towards power concentrating in a group of viziers, advisers, governors, and royal family members, including Suleiman's childhood friend Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha who rose to grand vizier of the empire.[53] When putting down Hain Ahmed Pasha's 1524 rebellion in Egypt, Ibrahim rode aboard the navy's flagship, commanded by Piri Reis.[54][55] Piri Reis said they discussed cartography after Ibrahim asked him about the maps and charts being consulted aboard the ship.[56] Ibrahim commissioned Piri Reis to create an expanded version of the Kitab-ı Bahriye.[57] He finished it and gifted it to the sultan by 1526. In later centuries, many copies were made of both versions of the book.[58] Piri Reis completed a second world map in 1528 or 1529.[59] According to Sevin Tekeli, the changes from the first world map demonstrate that Piri Reis was actively following European voyages of discovery.[60]
Venice saw Piri Reis as an adversary and obstacle to their aims in the Middle East during the 1530s.[61] In 1532, he fought back Dalmatian pirates in the Adriatic.[62] He attacked the Venetian-held castle at Koroni in 1533, captured a Venetian galley in 1536, and chased Venetian ships out of the eastern Mediterranean.[63]
Grand Admiral of the Indian Ocean Fleet
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Piri_Reis_-_Map_of_the_Egyptian_Coast_From_Alexandria_as_Far_as_the_City_of_Rashid_-_Walters_W658303B_-_Full_Page.jpg/220px-Piri_Reis_-_Map_of_the_Egyptian_Coast_From_Alexandria_as_Far_as_the_City_of_Rashid_-_Walters_W658303B_-_Full_Page.jpg)
After Sinan Reis died in 1546,[64] Piri Reis took his position as Hind Kapudan-ı Derya, or grand admiral of the Ottoman Fleet in the Indian Ocean, as well as admiral of the fleet in Egypt.[65] Portuguese ships had raided the Red Sea as far as Suez and taken the port city of Aden in Yemen.[66] The Portuguese navy employed sailing ships capable of navigation and combat in open seas, while the Ottoman navy relied mainly on galleys, which were more effective along the coasts. This limited Ottoman naval warfare to the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and narrow straits around Arabia. The empire focused on using its navy to continue land-based expansion into new areas for tax revenue, agriculture, and manpower.[67]
Using his fleet of galleys based out of Suez, Egypt,[68][69] Piri Reis led campaigns in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.[70] On 26 February 1548, he recaptured Aden from the Portuguese.[71] Piri Reis subdued the local Bedouin rulers of Basra in 1547 and began building a Persian Gulf fleet.[72] The fleet then began annual expansions in the Indian Ocean, even as some local rulers began to ally with the Portuguese.[73]
The sultan instructed Piri Reis to take the Portuguese-controlled Hormuz Island at the mouth of the gulf in the Strait of Hormuz.[74] In the 1550s, Piri Reis left Suez with 25 galleys, 5 ships, and 850 soldiers.[75] In 1552, the Turkish fleet took Muscat after a one-month siege.[76][77] The expedition took control of coastal lands in Yemen, Oman, and Arabia.[78] The Portuguese prepared for the attack by evacuating most of Hormuz. Wealthy residents took refuge on the nearby island of Qeshm, and the soldiers and royal family retreated to the fortress.[79] The Turkish soldiers took the City of Hormuz, but could not take the fortress.[80] The Ottoman fleet laid siege to the island for several weeks, but retreated.[81][82] They sacked the city, looted Qeshm, and retreated into the gulf with over a million pieces of gold.[83]
In his 80s, Piri Reis was executed following his retreat at Hormuz.[84] After the expedition's failure, Kubad Pasha the governor of Basra denied Piri Reis rowers for his galleys.[85][86] Piri Reis returned to Egypt in 1552 with only two ships, loaded with gold.[87][88] The following year, the sultan had him beheaded.[89] A letter—dated 15 November 1553—written from diplomats in Constantinople to Venice said that he had been "charged with having raised the siege of the fortress of Hormuz".[90]
Works
[edit]Piri Reis map of 1513
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg/220px-Piri_reis_world_map_01.jpg)
The Piri Reis map of 1513 is a world map that Piri Reis compiled from a range of contemporary and classical sources.[91] Approximately one third of the map survives, housed in the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul.[92] The finished manuscript was dated to the month of Muharram in the Islamic year 919 AH, equivalent to 1513 AD.[93] Piri Reis played a role in the 1517 conquest of Egypt. After the Ottoman victory,[94] Piri Reis presented the 1513 world map to Ottoman Sultan Selim I (r. 1512–1520).[95] It is unknown how Selim used the map, if at all, as it would vanish from history until its rediscovery centuries later.[96] When rediscovered in 1929, the remaining fragment garnered international attention as it includes a partial copy of an otherwise lost map by Christopher Columbus.[97]
![Side by side outlines of the map's depiction of the Caribbean and the Behaim globe's depiction of Asia's east coast show different coastlines but a similar arrangement of land masses.](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/CipangoComparisonOfPiriReis1513MapToBehaimGlobe.svg/220px-CipangoComparisonOfPiriReis1513MapToBehaimGlobe.svg.png)
The map is a portolan chart, as shown by the compass roses from which lines of bearing radiate. Designed for navigation via dead reckoning, portolan charts use a windrose network rather than a longitude and latitude grid.[98][99] It contains extensive notes primarily in Ottoman Turkish.[100] The colophon in Arabic is written in a different handwriting, likely that of Piri Reis himself.[101] The depiction of South America is detailed and accurate for its time.[102] Scholars attribute the peculiar arrangement of the Caribbean to a now-lost map from Columbus that depicted Cuba as part of the Asian mainland and Hispaniola according to Marco Polo's description of Japan.[103] The southern coast of the Atlantic Ocean is widely accepted to be a version of Terra Australis.[104]
The map is visually distinct from European portolan charts, populated by Islamic miniatures.[105] The map was unusual in the Islamic cartographic tradition for incorporating many non-Muslim sources.[106] Historian Karen Pinto has described the combination of legendary creatures from the edge of the known world with positive portrayals as challenging the medieval Islamic idea of an "inhabited quarter" of the world surrounded by an impassable Encircling Ocean.[107] Piri Reis adapted the elements of iconography from the traditional maps—which illustrated well-known routes, cities, and peoples—to the portolan portrayals of newly discovered coasts.[108]
There are conflicting interpretations of the map. Scholarly debate exists over the specific sources used in the map's creation and the number of source maps.[109] Many areas on the map have not been conclusively identified with real or mythical places.[110] Some authors have noted visual similarities to parts of the Americas not officially discovered by 1513, but there is no textual or historical evidence that the map represents land south of present-day Cananéia.[111] A disproven 20th-century hypothesis identified the southern landmass with an ice-free Antarctic coast.[112]
Kitab-ı Bahriye
[edit]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Piri_ibn_haji_mehmed%2C_corsica%2C_nel_kitab-i_bahriye_%28libro_delle_cose_del_mare%29%2C_1590_ca._%28bnf%29_01.jpg/220px-Piri_ibn_haji_mehmed%2C_corsica%2C_nel_kitab-i_bahriye_%28libro_delle_cose_del_mare%29%2C_1590_ca._%28bnf%29_01.jpg)
The Kitab-ı Bahriye (كتاب بحرية), or Book of the Sea, is a navigational guide written by Piri Reis.[113][114] After the death Kemal Reis,[115] Piri Reis compiled navigational charts and notes into the most detailed portolan atlas in existence.[116][117] There are two versions of the book.[118] The first version was composed between 1511 and 1521.[119][120] Both versions begin with a preface and were dedicated to the sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.[121]
The second version—completed by 1526—includes a longer introduction written in verse.[122] It offers information on storms, winds, navigating with a compass, navigating by the stars, reading portolan charts, and the oceans.[123] It includes information on recent Portuguese and Spanish voyages including the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas and Vasco da Gama's discovery of a sea route to India.[124] It offers the first detailed Ottoman description of the Indian Ocean, with special attention given to Hormuz.[125][126]
The main part of both versions is a nautical atlas to the Mediterranean Sea. Separate chapters cover different locations with corresponding portolan charts.[127] There are 130 chapters in the first version and 210 in the second.[128] Piri Reis says he composed an atlas with separate maps and charts because the details in any single map are limited by the space available.[129] The chapters start at the Dardanelles and move counter-clockwise around the Mediterranean.[130] The Kitab-ı Bahriye combines information from a range of sources and Piri Reis' personal experience. The coast of North Africa relies little on outside sources.[131] Its maps have compass roses indicating North for each page.[132][133] Scale is indicated only in the textual descriptions, not with scale bars.[134] Standard portolan symbols indicate hazards, like dots for shallow water and crosses for rocks.[135] Written when Ottoman sailors relied on oar-driven galleys and galiots, the Kitab-ı Bahriye reflects their needs and capabilities. It gives information on coastal waters, safe harbors, hazards, and sources of fresh water.[136]
The known surviving manuscripts are all copies created beginning in the later 1500s.[137] The book achieved fame only after Piri Reis' death.[138] At least some portion of the book has been translated into English, modern Turkish, Greek, French, German, and Italian.[139]
1528 world map
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Second_World_Map_of_Piri_Reis.jpg/200px-Second_World_Map_of_Piri_Reis.jpg)
Piri Reis compiled a second world map in 1528.[140] Only a fragment of the map—the northwest corner—remains.[141] The parchment fragment is approximately 70 centimeters square.[142] As with the 1513 map, the 1528 map has calligraphic inscriptions in Ottoman-Turkish written in the Arabic alphabet. The colophon is in Arabic, likely handwritten by Piri Reis himself.[143] According to the colophon, Piri Reis compiled the map in 1528 in Gallipoli.[144] However, he may not have completed it until 1529.[145]
The 1528 map was a portolan chart like his earlier works. It uses a windrose network radiating out from compass roses.[146] The map includes one line of latitude, the Tropic of Cancer; it is about ten degrees south of the correct position for Cuba and the Yucatan.[147] The map uses standard portolan colors and symbols. Dots indicate shallow waters and shoals. Crosses indicate rocks and reefs.[148] The miniatures painted on the map depict two caravels and a carrack.[149] The scale bars indicate 50 miles between the sections of the scales.[150]
Based on the design of recently discovered geographical features like Greenland, Newfoundland, and Florida, the map likely relied on Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian maps from the 1520s.[151] Notes on the map cite recent Portuguese voyages to Labrador and Newfoundland.[152] Hispaniola and Cuba are much more accurate compared to the 1513 world map. Cuba, labeled "Isla di Vana", is now correctly positioned as an island in the Caribbean.[153] In contrast to the 1513 map, Piri Reis leaves areas that have not been explored blank.[154] Only the explored southern coasts of the Florida peninsula are on the map. The geography of Florida is left ambiguous as potentially an island or peninsula.[155] The Spanish Empire's master map, the Padrón Real, included this type of ambiguous Florida until 1520, and it influenced Italian cartography like the Freducci map.[156]
Legacy
[edit]Piri Reis is mentioned in the 2010 video game Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood, and appears as a character in its 2011 sequel Assassin's Creed: Revelations.[157] In Brotherhood, a group of Italian Assassins sent from Rome to Constantinople by Ezio Auditore da Firenze infiltrates Piri Reis's shop to steal some of his maps detailing the New World, in order to match the Templars' expansion into the new lands. By Revelations, despite his earlier conflict with the Assassins, Piri joins the Ottoman Assassin Brotherhood in 1506 to serve as a scholar and technician, and even eventually progresses to the rank of Master Assassin.
In the 2021 Turkish TV series Barbaros: Sword of the Mediterranean, he is portrayed by actor Emir Benderlioğlu.
Several warships and submarines of the Turkish Navy have been named after Piri Reis.
References
[edit]- ^ Bostan 2007.
- ^ Pedani 2015, abstract.
- ^ Soucek 1992.
- ^ Brotton 1998, p. 108.
- ^ Pedani 2015, p. 324.
- ^ Soucek 1992, p. 272.
- ^ a b c d e Bostan 2014.
- ^ Soucek 1992, p. 266.
- ^
- İnan 1954, p. 6;
- McIntosh 2000a, p. 5;
- "Reis". Tureng Multilingual Dictionary.
- ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 5.
- ^ Pedani 2015, p. 320.
- ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 5.
- ^ Pedani 2015, p. 320.
- ^ Pedani 2015, p. 321.
- ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 5.
- ^ Khair 2006, p. 127.
- ^ "Corsair". Cambridge Dictionary.
- ^ Pryor 1988, p. 193.
- ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 6.
- ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 6.
- ^ İnan 1954, p. 9.
- ^ Ayyubi 1989, p. 737.
- ^ Hess 1970, p. 1905.
- ^ Pedani 2015, p. 319.
- ^ Hess 1970, p. 1905.
- ^ Pedani 2015, pp. 319–320.
- ^ Soucek 2004, pp. 222, 232.
- ^ Soucek 2004, p. 232.
- ^ Pitcher 1972, p. 99.
- ^ Hess 1970, pp. 1905–1907.
- ^ Soucek 1992, pp. 267, 270, 271.
- ^ Nebenzahl 1990, p. 62.
- ^ Urguplu 2015.
- ^ Massetti & Veracini 2016, pp. 41–42.
- ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 9.
- ^ Brotton 1998, p. 108.
- ^ Tekeli 1985, pp. 675–676.
- ^ Ayyubi 1989, p. 738.
- ^ Tekeli 1985, pp. 675–676.
- ^ Kahle 1933, p. 621.
- ^ Soucek 1992, p. 270.
- ^ Pedani 2015, pp. 321–322.
- ^ Soucek 2004, pp. 220–223.
- ^ Soucek 2004, p. 222.
- ^ Soucek 2013, p. 137.
- ^ Soucek 2004, p. 220.
- ^ Soucek 2004, p. 221.
- ^ Soucek 2004, p. 223.
- ^ Soucek 2004, p. 223.
- ^ Grima 2021.
- ^ Yaldız et al..
- ^ Soucek 2013, p. 137.
- ^ Casale 2010, p. 34.
- ^ Casale 2010, p. 36.
- ^ Hess 1970, p. 1905.
- ^ Casale 2010, pp. 36–37.
- ^ Casale 2010, p. 37.
- ^ Hepworth 2005, p. 73.
- ^ Soucek 2013, p. 141.
- ^ Ayyubi 1989, p. 739.
- ^ Pedani 2015, p. 323.
- ^ Pedani 2015, p. 323.
- ^ Pedani 2015, p. 323.
- ^ Pedani 2015, p. 323.
- ^ Shaw 1976, p. 107.
- ^ Shaw 1976, p. 107.
- ^ Hess 1970, pp. 1916–1917.
- ^ İnan 1954, p. 15.
- ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 6.
- ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 6.
- ^ Shaw 1976, pp. 106–107.
- ^ Shaw 1976, p. 107.
- ^ Shaw 1976, pp. 106–107.
- ^ Önalp 2010, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Floor 2006, p. 175.
- ^ Shaw 1976, p. 107.
- ^ Floor 2006, p. 176.
- ^ Malekandathil 2010, p. 117.
- ^ Floor 2006, p. 176.
- ^ Finkel 2007, p. 136.
- ^ Önalp 2010, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Floor 2006, p. 176.
- ^ Floor 2006, p. 176.
- ^ McIntosh 2000a, p. 6.
- ^ Önalp 2010, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Floor 2006, p. 176.
- ^ Pedani 2015, p. 324.
- ^ Floor 2006, p. 176.
- ^ Pedani 2015, p. 324.
- ^ Pedani 2015, p. 324.
- ^ Massetti & Veracini 2016, pp. 41–42.
- ^ Massetti & Veracini 2016, p. 41.
- ^ Massetti & Veracini 2016, pp. 41–42.
- ^ Tekeli 1985, pp. 675–676.
- ^ Kahle 1933, p. 621.
- ^ Soucek 1992, p. 270.
- ^
- Şengör 2004 cites:
- Adıvar 1939, pp. 59–60.
- ^ Dutch 2010.
- ^ Mesenburg 2001, pp. 3, 7.
- ^ McIntosh 2000b.
- ^ Kahle 1933, p. 621.
- ^ Soucek 1996, pp. 58, 73–74.
- ^ Gaspar 2015.
- ^ Cuoghi 2002.
- ^ Pinto 2012, pp. 90–94.
- ^ Soucek 1994, p. 123.
- ^ Pinto 2012, p. 80.
- ^ Pinto 2012.
- ^ McIntosh 2000a, ch. 2.
- ^ McIntosh 2000a, ch. 3.
- ^ McIntosh 2000a, ch. 5.
- ^ McIntosh 2000a, ch. 6.
- ^
- Other translations of the title:
- Soucek 1992, p. 266: Book of Maritime Matters.
- Hepworth 2005, p. 73: Book on Navigation.
- ^ Casale 2010, p. 37.
- ^ Lepore, Piccardi & Rombai 2013, p. 85.
- ^ Hepworth 2005, p. 73.
- ^ Goodrich 2004, pt. 1.
- ^ Casale 2010, p. 37.
- ^ Soucek 2013 gives 1520 as a completion date.
- ^ FSTC Research Team 2010, sec. 4.
- ^ Soucek 1992, p. 272.
- ^ Casale 2010, p. 37.
- ^ Soucek 1992, p. 272.
- ^ Casale 2010, p. 37.
- ^ Soucek 2013, p. 139.
- ^ Casale 2010, p. 37
- ^ Soucek 1992, p. 272.
- ^ Soucek 1992, p. 272.
- ^ Soucek 1992, p. 272.
- ^ İnan 1954, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Soucek 1992, pp. 277–279.
- ^ Soucek 1992, p. 277.
- ^ Goodrich 2004, pt. 1.
- ^ Goodrich 2004, pt. 1.
- ^ Soucek 1992, p. 277.
- ^ Soucek 1992, pp. 273–274.
- ^ Goodrich 2004, Abstract.
- ^ Casale 2010, p. 186.
- ^ Lepore, Piccardi & Rombai 2013, p. 86.
- ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 303.
- ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 303.
- ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 303.
- ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 306.
- ^ McIntosh 2015.
- ^ McIntosh 2015, pp. 303, 315.
- ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 305.
- ^ Tekeli 1985, p. 681.
- ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 305.
- ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 306.
- ^ İnan 1954, p. 45.
- ^ McIntosh 2015, p. 303.
- ^ İnan 1954, pp. 43–45.
- ^ Tekeli 1985, p. 681
- ^ İnan 1954, p. 48.
- ^ McIntosh 2015, pp. 307–308.
- ^ McIntosh 2015, pp. 308–309.
- ^ Ritman, Alex (14 November 2011). "Assassin's Creed: Revelations is historically impressive". The National. Retrieved 29 April 2018.
Bibliography
[edit]- Adıvar, Abdülhak Adnan (1939). La Science Chez les Turcs Ottomans (1st ed.). Paris: G.P. Maisonneuve et Larose. OCLC 11676376.
- Ayyubi, N. Akmal (1989). "Contribution of Piri Reis to Cartography". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 50: 737–740. ISSN 2249-1937.
- Bostan, Idris (2007). "PÎRÎ REİS". TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 34 (Osmanpazari – Resuldar) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 283–285. ISBN 978-975-389-456-2.
- Bostan, İdris (30 January 2014). "Piri Reis: Ottoman Sailor of the Exploration Age". SeaNews. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
- Brotton, Jerry (1998). Trading Territories : Mapping the early modern world. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3499-8.
- Casale, Giancarlo (28 January 2010). "Ibrahim Pasha and the Age of Reconnaissance 1520–1536". The Ottoman Age of Exploration. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195377828.003.0003. ISBN 978-0-19-537782-8.
- Casale, Giancarlo (2019). "Did Alexander the Great Discover America? Debating Space and Time in Renaissance Istanbul". Renaissance Quarterly. 72 (3): 863–909. doi:10.1017/rqx.2019.252. ISSN 0034-4338. JSTOR 26845906. S2CID 204482631. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
- Cuoghi, Diego (2002). "Part 1 (Piri Reis)". The Mysteries of the Piri Reis map. Archived from the original on 10 March 2004. Retrieved 29 July 2023. Translation of: Cuoghi, Diego (2003). "I Misteri Della Mappa di Piri Reis". Gli enigmi della storia. Milan: Edizioni Piemme.
- Dutch, Steven (2010) [1998]. "The Piri Reis Map". Science, Pseudoscience, and Irrationalism. Archived from the original on 13 August 2013. Retrieved 16 August 2013 – via University of Wisconsin–Green Bay.
- Finkel, Caroline (2007). Osman's dream: the story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02397-4.
- Floor, Willem M. (2006). The Persian Gulf: A Political and Economic History of Five Port Cities, 1500-1730. Mage Publishers. ISBN 978-1-933823-12-6.
- FSTC Research Team (13 February 2010). "Piri Reis: A Genius 16th-Century Ottoman Cartographer and Navigator". Muslim Heritage. Retrieved 12 August 2024.
- Gaspar, Joaquim Alves (2015). "The Representation of the West Indies in Early Iberian Cartography: A Cartometric Approach". Terrae Incognitae. 47 (1): 10–32. doi:10.1179/0082288415Z.00000000041. S2CID 128885931.
- Goodrich, Thomas D. (2004). "The maps of the Kitab-i Bahriye of Piri Reis". Piri Reis Sempozyumu. Istanbul Military Museum. Archived from the original on 16 May 2015.
- Grima, Joseph F. (24 October 2021). "The Order of St John's arrival in Malta in 1530". Times of Malta. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
- Hepworth, Paul (2005). "Production and Date of the Walters' "Kitab-i Bahriye"". The Journal of the Walters Art Museum. 63: 73–80. ISSN 1946-0988.
- Hess, Andrew C. (1970). "The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire in the Age of the Oceanic Discoveries, 1453-1525". The American Historical Review. 75 (7): 1892–1919. doi:10.2307/1848022. ISSN 0002-8762.
- İnan, Afet; Yolaç, Leman (trans.) (1954). The Oldest Map of America, Drawn by Piri Reis. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi. OCLC 2435662.
- Irzik, Gürol; Güzeldere, Güven, eds. (2005). Turkish studies in the history and philosophy of science. Springer. ISBN 9781402033322.
- Kahle, Paul E. (October 1933). "A Lost Map of Columbus". Geographical Review. 23 (4): 621–638. Bibcode:1933GeoRv..23..621K. doi:10.2307/209247. JSTOR 209247.
- Khair, Tabish, ed. (2006). "Piri Reis: The Voyages of a 'Corsair' (c. 1526)". Other routes: 1500 years of African and Asian travel writing. Oxford: Signal. pp. 127–131. ISBN 9781904955122. OCLC 61177562.
- Lepore, Fortunato; Piccardi, Marco; Rombai, Leonardo (2013). "Looking at the Kitab-i Bahriye of Piri Reis" (PDF). e-Perimetron. 8 (2).
- Loupis, Dimitris (2004). "Piri Reis' Book on Navigation (Kitab-ı Bahriye) as a Geography Handbook". Eastern Mediterranean cartographies. Athens, Greece: National Hellenic Research Foundation. p. 39. OCLC 892160459.
- Malekandathil, Pius (2010). Maritime India-Trade, Religion and Polity In the Indian Ocean.
- Massetti, Marco; Veracini, Cecilia (2016). "The zoomorphic representations of the Pîrî Reis map (1513)" (PDF). Anthropozoologica. 51 (1): 41–54. doi:10.5252/az2016n1a3. hdl:10400.5/28972. S2CID 192924551.
- McIntosh, Gregory C. (2000a). The Piri Reis Map of 1513. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 9780820343594.
- McIntosh, Gregory C. (2000b). "The Tale of Two Admirals: Columbus and the Piri Reis Map of 1513". Mercator's World. 5 (3). Aster: 18–23.
- McIntosh, Gregory C. (August 2015). "The Piri Reis Map of 1528: A Comparative Study with Other Maps of the Time". Mediterranea. Ricerche storiche. (34). Palermo: Mediterranea. ISSN 1828-230X.
- Mesenburg, Peter (2001). "Kartometrische Untersuchung und Rekonstruktion der Weltkarte des Piri Re'is (1513)". Cartographica Helvetica (in German) (24): 3–7.
- Nebenzahl, Kenneth (1990). Atlas of Columbus and the Great Discoveries. Chicago: Rand McNally. ISBN 9780528834073.
- Önalp, Ertuğrul (2010). "The Military Expedition of Piri Reis to Hormuz and the Considerations of Turkish and Portugese Historians About his Execution" (PDF). Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Tarih Bölümü Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi (in Turkish). 29 (47). doi:10.1501/Tarar_0000000453. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2013.
- Pedani, Maria Pia (August 2015). "Piri Reis in Venetian Documents". Mediterranea. Ricerche storiche. (34). Palermo: Mediterranea. ISSN 1828-230X.
- Pinto, Karen (2012). "Searchin' His Eyes, Lookin' for Traces: Piri Reis' World Map of 1513 & its Islamic Iconographic Connections (A Reading Through Bagdat 334 and Proust)". Journal of Ottoman Studies. 39 (1): 63–94.
- Pitcher, Donald Edgar (1972). An Historical Geography of the Ottoman Empire: From Earliest Times to the End of the Sixteenth Century. Brill Archive.
- Pryor, John H. (1988). Geography, Technology, and WarStudies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean, 649–1571. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34424-7.
- Robinson, Francis (1998). The Cambridge illustrated history of the Islamic world. London: Cambridge University Press.
- Savvides, Alexis G. K. (1992). "Notes on Navarino in the Frankish, Venetian and early Ottoman periods". Ekklisiastikos Faros. 74. Alexandria and Johannesburg.
- Şengör, Ali Mehmet Celâl (2004). "Who Discovered the 1513 Map of Piri Reis?". Piri Reis Sempozyumu. Istanbul Military Museum. Archived from the original on 25 October 2007.
- Shaw, Stanford J. (29 October 1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey. pp. 106–107.
- Soucek, Svat (1992). "Islamic Charting in the Mediterranean" (PDF). In Harley, J. B.; Woodward, D. (eds.). Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies. Vol. 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 263–272.
- Soucek, Svat (1994). "Piri Reis and Ottoman Discovery of the Great Discoveries". Studia Islamica (79): 121–142. doi:10.2307/1595839. JSTOR 1595839. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
- Soucek, Svatopluk (1996) [1992]. Piri Reis and Turkish Mapmaking After Columbus: The Khalili Portolan Atlas. Studies in the Khalili Collection. Vol. 2. London: The Nour Foundation.
- Soucek, Svatopluk (2004). "Navals Aspects of the Ottoman Conquests of Rhodes, Cyprus and Crete". Studia Islamica (98/99): 219–261. ISSN 0585-5292.
- Soucek, Svat (2013). "His uniqueness among cartographers and hydrographers of the Renaissance". Cartes & Géomatique (216): 135–144. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.1619.
- Tekeli, Sevim (1985). "The Map of America by Piri Reis". Erdem. 1 (3): 673–683. doi:10.32704/erdem.1985.3.673. S2CID 167145440.
- Urguplu, Ahmet (1 July 2015). "Piri Reis and His World Map". The Fountain. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
- Yaldız, Mustafa; Kaymakçı, Cihan; Özgün, Fırat, eds. (2 October 2019). Turkish Foundations in Rhodes and Kos. Eğitim Yayinevi. ISBN 978-605-7786-13-5.
Further reading
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
Editions of Kitab-ı Bahriye
- Kahle, Paul, ed. (1926). Piri Re'îs. Bahrîje. Das türkische Segelhandbuch für das Mittelländische Meer vom Jahre 1521 (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co.
- Kordoglu, Fevzi; Alpagot, Haydar; Pekol, Fehmi, eds. (1935). Piri Reis Kitabi Bahriye: eser ve yazean hakkinda bir onsozle bir endeks katilmistir [Piri Reis Kitab-ı Bahriye: with added foreword and index] (in Turkish). Vol. 2. Istanbul: Turk Tarihi Arastirma Korumu.
- Oktel, Ertugrul Zekai, ed. (1988). Piri Reis. Kitab-ı Bahriye. Istanbul: The Historical research foundation.
- Arī, Bülent, ed. (2002). Piri Reis. Kitab-ı Bahriye (in Turkish and English). Translated by Demir, Ahmet; Özden, Ercüment. Ankara: Republic of Turkey, Prime Ministry, Undersecretaryship of Navigation. ISBN 9755070966. OCLC 978146815.
Other links:
- Carboni, Stefano (2007). Venice and the Islamic world, 828-1797. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780300124309.
- Steven Dutch. "The Piri Reis map". Archived from the original on 13 August 2013.
- Lunde, Paul (1992). "A Muslim History Of The New World". Saudi Aramco World.
- "Piri Reis: A Genius 16th-Century Ottoman Cartographer and Navigator". MuslimHeritage.com. Archived from the original on 17 September 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
- "The Maps of Piri Reis". The Public Domain Review.
- Çal, İsmail (21 October 2010). "Piri Reis neden idam edildi?" (in Turkish). Dünya Bülteni. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
- Arikan, Muzaffer; Toledo, Paulino. "VENEDİK'TEKİ PAPALIK SEFARETİ BELGELERİNE GÖRE TÜRKLER" (PDF) (in Turkish). Ankara University.
- Piri Reis
- 1460s births
- 1550s deaths
- 15th-century explorers
- 16th-century explorers
- Naval history of the Ottoman Empire
- People from Gelibolu
- Cartographers from the Ottoman Empire
- Executed people from the Ottoman Empire
- Suleiman the Magnificent
- Geographers from the Ottoman Empire
- 16th-century geographers
- 15th-century people from the Ottoman Empire
- 16th-century people from the Ottoman Empire
- 16th-century executions by the Ottoman Empire
- Executed Turkish people
- People executed by the Ottoman Empire by decapitation
- Turks from the Ottoman Empire
- Greeks from the Ottoman Empire
- People from the Ottoman Empire of Greek descent