Transcendental number
In mathematics, a transcendental number is a real or complex number that is not algebraic – that is, not the root of a non-zero polynomial with integer (or, equivalently, rational) coefficients. The best-known transcendental numbers are π and e.[1][2] The quality of a number being transcendental is called transcendence.
Though only a few classes of transcendental numbers are known – partly because it can be extremely difficult to show that a given number is transcendental – transcendental numbers are not rare: indeed, almost all real and complex numbers are transcendental, since the algebraic numbers form a countable set, while the set of real numbers and the set of complex numbers are both uncountable sets, and therefore larger than any countable set.
All transcendental real numbers (also known as real transcendental numbers or transcendental irrational numbers) are irrational numbers, since all rational numbers are algebraic.[3][4][5][6] The converse is not true: Not all irrational numbers are transcendental. Hence, the set of real numbers consists of non-overlapping sets of rational, algebraic non-rational, and transcendental real numbers.[3] For example, the square root of 2 is an irrational number, but it is not a transcendental number as it is a root of the polynomial equation x2 − 2 = 0. The golden ratio (denoted or ) is another irrational number that is not transcendental, as it is a root of the polynomial equation x2 − x − 1 = 0.
History
[edit]The name "transcendental" comes from Latin trānscendere 'to climb over or beyond, surmount',[7] and was first used for the mathematical concept in Leibniz's 1682 paper in which he proved that sin x is not an algebraic function of x .[8] Euler, in the 18th century, was probably the first person to define transcendental numbers in the modern sense.[9]
Johann Heinrich Lambert conjectured that e and π were both transcendental numbers in his 1768 paper proving the number π is irrational, and proposed a tentative sketch proof that π is transcendental.[10]
Joseph Liouville first proved the existence of transcendental numbers in 1844,[11] and in 1851 gave the first decimal examples such as the Liouville constant
in which the nth digit after the decimal point is 1 if n is equal to k! (k factorial) for some k and 0 otherwise.[12] In other words, the nth digit of this number is 1 only if n is one of the numbers 1! = 1, 2! = 2, 3! = 6, 4! = 24, etc. Liouville showed that this number belongs to a class of transcendental numbers that can be more closely approximated by rational numbers than can any irrational algebraic number, and this class of numbers are called Liouville numbers, named in his honour. Liouville showed that all Liouville numbers are transcendental.[13]
The first number to be proven transcendental without having been specifically constructed for the purpose of proving transcendental numbers' existence was e, by Charles Hermite in 1873.
In 1874, Georg Cantor proved that the algebraic numbers are countable and the real numbers are uncountable. He also gave a new method for constructing transcendental numbers.[14] Although this was already implied by his proof of the countability of the algebraic numbers, Cantor also published a construction that proves there are as many transcendental numbers as there are real numbers.[a] Cantor's work established the ubiquity of transcendental numbers.
In 1882, Ferdinand von Lindemann published the first complete proof that π is transcendental. He first proved that ea is transcendental if a is a non-zero algebraic number. Then, since eiπ = −1 is algebraic (see Euler's identity), iπ must be transcendental. But since i is algebraic, π must therefore be transcendental. This approach was generalized by Karl Weierstrass to what is now known as the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem. The transcendence of π implies that geometric constructions involving compass and straightedge only cannot produce certain results, for example squaring the circle.
In 1900, David Hilbert posed a question about transcendental numbers, Hilbert's seventh problem: If a is an algebraic number that is not zero or one, and b is an irrational algebraic number, is ab necessarily transcendental? The affirmative answer was provided in 1934 by the Gelfond–Schneider theorem. This work was extended by Alan Baker in the 1960s in his work on lower bounds for linear forms in any number of logarithms (of algebraic numbers).[16]
Properties
[edit]A transcendental number is a (possibly complex) number that is not the root of any integer polynomial. Every real transcendental number must also be irrational, since a rational number is the root of an integer polynomial of degree one.[17] The set of transcendental numbers is uncountably infinite. Since the polynomials with rational coefficients are countable, and since each such polynomial has a finite number of zeroes, the algebraic numbers must also be countable. However, Cantor's diagonal argument proves that the real numbers (and therefore also the complex numbers) are uncountable. Since the real numbers are the union of algebraic and transcendental numbers, it is impossible for both subsets to be countable. This makes the transcendental numbers uncountable.
No rational number is transcendental and all real transcendental numbers are irrational. The irrational numbers contain all the real transcendental numbers and a subset of the algebraic numbers, including the quadratic irrationals and other forms of algebraic irrationals.
Applying any non-constant single-variable algebraic function to a transcendental argument yields a transcendental value. For example, from knowing that π is transcendental, it can be immediately deduced that numbers such as , , , and are transcendental as well.
However, an algebraic function of several variables may yield an algebraic number when applied to transcendental numbers if these numbers are not algebraically independent. For example, π and (1 − π) are both transcendental, but π + (1 − π) = 1 is obviously not. It is unknown whether e + π, for example, is transcendental, though at least one of e + π and eπ must be transcendental. More generally, for any two transcendental numbers a and b, at least one of a + b and ab must be transcendental. To see this, consider the polynomial (x − a)(x − b) = x2 − (a + b) x + a b . If (a + b) and a b were both algebraic, then this would be a polynomial with algebraic coefficients. Because algebraic numbers form an algebraically closed field, this would imply that the roots of the polynomial, a and b, must be algebraic. But this is a contradiction, and thus it must be the case that at least one of the coefficients is transcendental.
The non-computable numbers are a strict subset of the transcendental numbers.
All Liouville numbers are transcendental, but not vice versa. Any Liouville number must have unbounded partial quotients in its continued fraction expansion. Using a counting argument one can show that there exist transcendental numbers which have bounded partial quotients and hence are not Liouville numbers.
Using the explicit continued fraction expansion of e, one can show that e is not a Liouville number (although the partial quotients in its continued fraction expansion are unbounded). Kurt Mahler showed in 1953 that π is also not a Liouville number. It is conjectured that all infinite continued fractions with bounded terms, that have a "simple" structure, and that are not eventually periodic are transcendental[18] (in other words, algebraic irrational roots of at least third degree polynomials do not have apparent pattern in their continued fraction expansions, since eventually periodic continued fractions correspond to quadratic irrationals, see Hermite's problem).
Numbers proven to be transcendental
[edit]Numbers proven to be transcendental:
- π (by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem).
- if is algebraic and nonzero (by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem), in particular Euler's number e.
- where is a positive integer; in particular Gelfond's constant (by the Gelfond–Schneider theorem).
- Algebraic combinations of and such as and (following from their algebraic independence).[19]
- where is algebraic but not 0 or 1, and is irrational algebraic, in particular the Gelfond–Schneider constant (by the Gelfond–Schneider theorem).
- The natural logarithm if is algebraic and not equal to 0 or 1, for any branch of the logarithm function (by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem).
- if and are positive integers not both powers of the same integer, and is not equal to 1 (by the Gelfond–Schneider theorem).
- All numbers of the form are transcendental, where are algebraic for all and are non-zero algebraic for all (by Baker's theorem).
- The trigonometric functions and their hyperbolic counterparts, for any nonzero algebraic number , expressed in radians (by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem).
- Non-zero results of the inverse trigonometric functions and their hyperbolic counterparts, for any algebraic number (by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem).
- , for rational such that .[20]
- The fixed point of the cosine function (also referred to as the Dottie number ) – the unique real solution to the equation , where is in radians (by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem).[21]
- if is algebraic and nonzero, for any branch of the Lambert W Function (by the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem), in particular the omega constant Ω.
- if both and the order are algebraic such that , for any branch of the generalized Lambert W function.[22]
- , the square super-root of any natural number is either an integer or transcendental (by the Gelfond–Schneider theorem).
- Particular rational values of the gamma function, namely: and .[23]
- Algebraic combinations of and or and such as the lemniscate constant (following from their respective algebraic independences).[19]
- The values of Beta function (in which and are non-integer rational numbers).[24]
- The Bessel function of the first kind , its first derivative, and the quotient are transcendental when is rational and is algebraic and nonzero,[25] and all nonzero roots of and are transcendental when is rational.[26]
- The number , where and are Bessel functions and is the Euler–Mascheroni constant.[27][28]
- Any Liouville number, in particular: Liouville's constant.
- Numbers with irrationality measure greater than two, such as the Champernowne constant (by Roth's theorem).
- Artificially constructed non-periodic numbers.[29]
- Any non-computable number, in particular: Chaitin's constant.
- Constructed irrational numbers which are not simply normal in any base.[30]
- Any number for which the digits with respect to some fixed base form a Sturmian word.[31]
- The Prouhet–Thue–Morse constant[32] and the related rabbit constant.[33]
- The Komornik–Loreti constant.[34]
- The paperfolding constant (also named as "Gaussian Liouville number").[35]
- The values of the infinite series with fast convergence rate as defined by Y. Gao and J. Gao, such as .[36]
- Numbers of the form and For b > 1 where is the floor function.[11][37][38][39][40][41]
- Any number of the form (where , are polynomials in variables and , is algebraic and , is any integer greater than 1).[42]
- The numbers and with only two different decimal digits whose nonzero digit positions are given by the Moser–de Bruijn sequence and its double.[43]
- The values of the Rogers-Ramanujan continued fraction where is algebraic and .[44] The lemniscatic values of theta function (under the same conditions for ) are also transcendental.[45]
- j(q) where is algebraic but not imaginary quadratic (i.e, the exceptional set of this function is the number field whose degree of extension over is 2).
- The constants and in the formula for first index of occurrence of Gijswijt's sequence, where k is any integer greater than 1.[46]
Possible transcendental numbers
[edit]Numbers which have yet to be proven to be either transcendental or algebraic:
- Most nontrivial combinations of two or more transcendental numbers are themselves not known to be transcendental: eπ, e + π, π − e, π/e, ππ, ee, πe, π√2, eπ2 are not known to be rational, algebraically irrational or transcendental. At least one of the numbers ee and ee2 is transcendental, according to W. D. Brownawell (1974).[47] It has been shown that both e + π and π/e do not satisfy any polynomial equation of degree and integer coefficients of average size 109.[48]
- The Euler–Mascheroni constant γ: In 2010 M. Ram Murty and N. Saradha found an infinite list of numbers containing γ/4 such that all but at most one of them are transcendental.[49][50] In 2012 it was shown that at least one of γ and the Euler–Gompertz constant δ is transcendental.[51]
- The values of the Riemann zeta function ζ(n) at odd positive integers ; in particular Apéry's constant ζ(3), which is known to be irrational. For the other numbers ζ(5), ζ(7), ζ(9), ... even this is not known.
- The values of the Dirichlet beta function β(n) at even positive integers ; in particular Catalan's Constant β(2). (none of them are known to be irrational).[52]
- Rational values of the Gamma Function Γ(1/n) for positive integers and are not known to be irrational, let alone transcendental.[53] It is however known that for at least one the numbers Γ(1/n) and Γ(2/n) is transcendental.[24]
- The Feigenbaum constants δ and α, also not proven to be irrational.
- Khinchin's constant, also not proven to be irrational.
- Various other constants which are known to be irrational, such as the Copeland-Erdős constant.
- Various constants whose value is not known with high precision, such as the Landau's constant and the Grothendieck constant.
Related conjectures:
Proofs for specific numbers
[edit]A proof that e is transcendental
[edit]The first proof that the base of the natural logarithms, e, is transcendental dates from 1873. We will now follow the strategy of David Hilbert (1862–1943) who gave a simplification of the original proof of Charles Hermite. The idea is the following:
Assume, for purpose of finding a contradiction, that e is algebraic. Then there exists a finite set of integer coefficients c0, c1, ..., cn satisfying the equation: It is difficult to make use of the integer status of these coefficients when multiplied by a power of the irrational e, but we can absorb those powers into an integral which “mostly” will assume integer values. For a positive integer k, define the polynomial and multiply both sides of the above equation by to arrive at the equation:
By splitting respective domains of integration, this equation can be written in the form where Here P will turn out to be an integer, but more importantly it grows quickly with k.
Lemma 1
[edit]There are arbitrarily large k such that is a non-zero integer.
Proof. Recall the standard integral (case of the Gamma function) valid for any natural number . More generally,
- if then .
This would allow us to compute exactly, because any term of can be rewritten as through a change of variables. Hence That latter sum is a polynomial in with integer coefficients, i.e., it is a linear combination of powers with integer coefficients. Hence the number is a linear combination (with those same integer coefficients) of factorials ; in particular is an integer.
Smaller factorials divide larger factorials, so the smallest occurring in that linear combination will also divide the whole of . We get that from the lowest power term appearing with a nonzero coefficient in , but this smallest exponent is also the multiplicity of as a root of this polynomial. is chosen to have multiplicity of the root and multiplicity of the roots for , so that smallest exponent is for and for with . Therefore divides .
To establish the last claim in the lemma, that is nonzero, it is sufficient to prove that does not divide . To that end, let be any prime larger than and . We know from the above that divides each of for , so in particular all of those are divisible by . It comes down to the first term . We have (see falling and rising factorials) and those higher degree terms all give rise to factorials or larger. Hence That right hand side is a product of nonzero integer factors less than the prime , therefore that product is not divisible by , and the same holds for ; in particular cannot be zero.
Lemma 2
[edit]For sufficiently large k, .
Proof. Note that
where u(x), v(x) are continuous functions of x for all x, so are bounded on the interval [0, n]. That is, there are constants G, H > 0 such that
So each of those integrals composing Q is bounded, the worst case being
It is now possible to bound the sum Q as well:
where M is a constant not depending on k. It follows that
finishing the proof of this lemma.
Conclusion
[edit]Choosing a value of k that satisfies both lemmas leads to a non-zero integer added to a vanishingly small quantity being equal to zero: an impossibility. It follows that the original assumption, that e can satisfy a polynomial equation with integer coefficients, is also impossible; that is, e is transcendental.
The transcendence of π
[edit]A similar strategy, different from Lindemann's original approach, can be used to show that the number π is transcendental. Besides the gamma-function and some estimates as in the proof for e, facts about symmetric polynomials play a vital role in the proof.
For detailed information concerning the proofs of the transcendence of π and e, see the references and external links.
See also
[edit]- Transcendental number theory, the study of questions related to transcendental numbers
- Transcendental element, generalization of transcendental numbers in abstract algebra
- Gelfond–Schneider theorem
- Diophantine approximation
- Periods, a countable set of numbers (including all algebraic and some transcendental numbers) which may be defined by integral equations.
Notes
[edit]- ^ Cantor's construction builds a one-to-one correspondence between the set of transcendental numbers and the set of real numbers. In this article, Cantor only applies his construction to the set of irrational numbers.[15]
References
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- Pytheas Fogg, N. (2002). Berthé, V.; Ferenczi, Sébastien; Mauduit, Christian; Siegel, A. (eds.). Substitutions in dynamics, arithmetics and combinatorics. Lecture Notes in Mathematics. Vol. 1794. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-44141-0. Zbl 1014.11015.
- Shallit, J. (15–26 July 1996). "Number theory and formal languages". In Hejhal, D.A.; Friedman, Joel; Gutzwiller, M.C.; Odlyzko, A.M. (eds.). Emerging Applications of Number Theory. IMA Summer Program. The IMA Volumes in Mathematics and its Applications. Vol. 109. Minneapolis, MN: Springer (published 1999). pp. 547–570. ISBN 978-0-387-98824-5.
External links
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- Weisstein, Eric W. "Transcendental Number". MathWorld.
- Weisstein, Eric W. "Liouville Number". MathWorld.
- Weisstein, Eric W. "Liouville's Constant". MathWorld.
- "Proof that e is transcendental". planetmath.org.
- "Proof that the Liouville constant is transcendental". deanlmoore.com. Retrieved 2018-11-12.
- Fritsch, R. (29 March 1988). Transzendenz von e im Leistungskurs? [Transcendence of e in advanced courses?] (PDF). Rahmen der 79. Hauptversammlung des Deutschen Vereins zur Förderung des mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Unterrichts [79th Annual, General Meeting of the German Association for the Promotion of Mathematics and Science Education]. Der mathematische und naturwissenschaftliche Unterricht (in German). Vol. 42. Kiel, DE (published 1989). pp. 75–80 (presentation), 375–376 (responses). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-16 – via University of Munich (mathematik.uni-muenchen.de ). — Proof that e is transcendental, in German.
- Fritsch, R. (2003). "Hilberts Beweis der Transzendenz der Ludolphschen Zahl π" (PDF). Дифференциальная геометрия многообразий фигур (in German). 34: 144–148. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-16 – via University of Munich (mathematik.uni-muenchen.de/~fritsch).